Bio-Management of Weeds through Utilization as Value-Added
Products: A Review
Tasawer Abbas1*, Muhammad Ather Nadeem1, Nilda Roma Burgos2,
Amar Matloob3,4, Muhammad Kamran1, Muhammad Kashif Munir5,
Muhammad Tanveer Ahmed Kalyar6 and Naila Farooq7
1Department of Agronomy, College
of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Pakistan
2Department of Crop, Soil, and
Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72704, USA
3Department of Agronomy, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef
University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
4Department of Climate Change, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef
University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
5Fiber Crops Section, Agronomic Research Institute,
Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad 38850, Pakistan
6Fodder Research Institute,
Sargodha, Pakistan
7Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, College
of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Pakistan
*For correspondence: tagondaluaf@gmail.com
Abstract
Weed species are problematic because they reduce value
of the land, cause hazards, impede water transportation, cause illness to
humans and livestock, reduce biodiversity and reduce crop yield (30–55%) and
quality of harvested product when infest field crops. Such traits also include
production of high biomass and production of phytotoxins. In addition to
agroecosystem, about 50% of garasslands are covered
by weeds. Chemical weed control is not sustainable due to evolution of widespread
herbicide resistance and other hazards associated with chemical use. One
alternative for farmers could be the utilization of certain weed species for a
beneficial purpose. This has to be done properly to prevent spreading weed
seeds to newly cultivated areas. Nutrients and minerals in weed biomass can be
returned to the soil when used as green manure or compost and organic mulch in
crops, vegetables and fruit trees. Utilization of weeds as compost, organic
mulch, hay and silage, bioherbicides, biofuel and other value-added products could be
environment friendly alternatives. Weeds also demonstrate significant potential
for utilization in dye degradation, papermaking, cellulose production,
corrosion inhibition, biosorption, and phytoextraction. Other indirect benefits
include reduced use of synthetic herbicides and fertilizers, and improved soil
quality. Little information is available on beneficial uses of weeds. This review paper has discussed the available
literature regarding the utilization of weeds, and has identified research gaps
and deficiencies, which need further research to explore potential of weeds as a source of value-added
products. © 2024 Friends Science Publishers
Keywords: Bio-herbicides; Bio-fuel; Sustainable agriculture; Organic weed
control; Weed compost; Weed mulch; Weed hay and silage
Introduction
Weeds are generally considered harmful pests as they
adversely affect crop productivity and cause health problems in humans and animals when infest field crops. It
is well-documented that about 45% losses
in crop production are due to weeds, uncontrolled weed can cause up to 100%
yield loss (Chauhan 2020 . Weed
control with herbicides is the miracle of modern agricultural science. However,
we are being confronted with herbicide resistance evolution in weeds and persistent
concerns about contamination of crop produce due to the long-term use of
herbicides, particularly in vegetables. To date 272 herbicide resistant weed
species have been found in 100 crops in 72 countries worldwide (Heap 2024). Studies in recent
years have revealed that chemical weed control has many hazards including environmental
damage, food toxicity, hormesis in weeds and weed resistance (Abbas et al. 2016; Khan et al. 2016; Nadeem et al. 2017;
Matloob et al. 2020). Therefore,
identification and implementation of alternative weed management strategies are crucial for better productivity and sustainability
of agroecosystem.
Proper utilization of weeds as value-added products can
enhance the income of farmers, an added benefit to control efforts in various agroecosystems. Weeds may have beneficial uses
such as manure, compost, soil and water conservation resources, etc. Moreover, many weed species have
medicinal properties and could be developed into medicinal products that
provide additional income to farmers (Jayasundera
et al. 2021). With proper
attention and planning, identification of medicinal properties of weedy
herbaceous plants and their commercialization could be a highly lucrative
venture (Stepp and Moerman 2001; Stepp 2004; Chandrasena 2007). This would also make some natural
medicines available and affordable to the public (Jayasundera
et al. 2021). A lot of
research is available regarding the medicinal
potential of many weedy plants (Stepp 2004; Chandrasena
2007; Jayasunderaet al. 2021).
Weed biomass can be used as compost for organic crop
production. Weed compost has high nutrient contents and the use of weed compost
has resulted in increased growth and development of different crop plants (Rai and Suthar 2020; Rai et al. 2021). Weeds
may also be used as a source of hay and
silage because many
weedy plants are rich in nutrients, with higher palatability and digestibility
than common forages (Khan et al. 2013;
Tozer et al. 2015; Farooq et al. 2021). Many weedy plants are allelopathic, gaining dominance
over other weeds by producing phytotoxic compounds can become major source of
forage for animals in rangelands and pastures (Om et al. 2002; Zohaib et al. 2016). Bioherbicideswith less environmental impact can be produced from
such plants. Previously, some weed plants such as Miscanthus spp. and Arundo
spp. have been explored as feedstock for renewable biofuel (Suganeshwari
and Ramani 2014; Vaicekonyte et al. 2014; Borah et al. 2016; Ogunjobi et al.
2016; Ali et al. 2020). Weeds can also be
used in biochar preparation
(Shinde et al. 2012), dye
degradation, paper making and cellulose production (Chandel and Singh 2011), corrosion inhibition (Ji et al. 2012), source of dye (Dayal et al. 2008), bioadsorption (Sangita and Bute 2009) and
phytoextraction (Hadi and Bano 2009; Mane et
al. 2013). This article discusses the
utilization of weedy plants as value-added
products.
Weeds as
compost material
Weeds are frequently overlooked as a source of compost
by scientists worldwide. Weed management research has been focused on reducing
weed population by chemical control;
investigations on weed utilization are minimal. Weed biomass is one of
the readily available sources of nutrients and organic matter (Table 1) butdid not receive
due attention in the past. The favorable climate conditions can lead to the
production of huge weed biomass (5–20 t ha-1) depending on weed species. Because of the intensive and exhaustive farming systems in
developing countries, the drainage of soil nutrients occurs to a great extent.
It leads to an imbalance in nutrients
availability, loss of soil fertility and a
drastic reduction in crop/soil productivity. Fertility and productivity
of the soil can be sustained with integrated nutrient management, and organic
manures are the essential component of
integrated nutrient management. The concept of organic waste management,
particularly weed biomass and its recycling is a low-input on-farm practice for
meeting partial nutrients requirements (25%) of plants and sustaining soil
health through the improvement of physico-chemical
properties and microbial diversity of soil (Prasad et al. 2009; Rai and Suthar 2020;
Rai et al. 2021).
Weed biomass can be composted either in pits or heaps
under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Nithya et al. 2009). Composts prepared from weeds possess more or
comparable nutrient contents to cow dung, farmyard manure (FYM), and green
manure crops like sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea
L.) and quick stick (Gliricidia
maculata Jacq.) with a considerable reduction in the carbon to nitrogen
ratio (Chinnusamy et al. 2009; Nithya
et al. 2009; Prasad et al.
2009). However, the quality of compost harvested from weeds varies with weed
species, and their sole or mixed use. Mahanta and Jha (2009) recorded the
highest compost recovery from Ipomoea
carnea (Jacq.) than water hyacinth Eichhornia
crassipes (Mart.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw. Likewise, more
NPK values in compost were obtained from a mixture of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and Echinochloa
colona (L.) compost than individual weed compost (Parmar and Sondhia 2010).
Weed compost prepared from Chromolaena
odorata (L.), Pa. hysterophorus, Eugenia uniflora (L.) and Ei. crassipes showed 1.32–1.64% N,
0.28–0.67% P and 0.93–1.86% K as against the nutrient contents of 0.78% N,
0.34% P and 0.69% K in FYM (Pramod et al.
2010). Similar results were also reported by Nithya et al. (2010). However, the nutrient supply potential of weed
compost also depends on the composting method. For instance, nutrient contents
in weed compost prepared with earthworm under aerobic conditions were higher
compared to the compost prepared in anaerobic conditions (Nithya et al. 2010).
Vermi-composting technology involves the use of
earthworms for recycling non-toxic organic waste to the soil. Succulent weeds
can be used for vermi-composting to supplement FYM and inorganic fertilizers
(Chinnusamy et al. 2009; Roy et al. 2009; Najar 2017). The quality of vermi-compost depends on earthworm
species. Compost recovery and total nutrient contents were the highest in Ip. carnea followed by Mikania micrantha (Kunth.) and Pa. hysterophorus
with Eudrilus earthworm as the
fastest decomposer (Devi and Khwairakpam 2021).
It could be due to the differential composting ability of earthworms owing to
feed preference and adaptability. Vermi-compost prepared from weed biomass
takes only 1.5–2 months compared to 8–12 months required for other farm wastes.
Therefore, it can easily replace the FYM-based vermi-compost, which has become
scarce due to decreasing on-farm livestock population (Saha et al. 2018).
Furthermore, Babu et al. (2008)
reported that several problematic weeds such as Lantana camara, Pa. hysterophorus, Saccharum munja and Ei. crassipes can be used as a good source
of vermi-compost (Table 1).
Worldwide, much emphasis is being paid on integrated
nutrient management as a sustainable crop Table
1: Weed species and their uses as compost, green manure, mulch and
vermi-compost in different field crops
Scientific name |
Family |
Uses |
Rate (tha-1) |
Name of crop |
Reference |
Ageratum
conyzoides L. |
Asteraceae |
Mulch |
5.0-10.0 |
Rice |
Hong et al. (2004); Khanh et al. (2005) |
Avena
fatua L. |
Poaceae |
||||
Bidens
pilosa L. |
Asteraceae |
||||
Brachiaria
ruziziensis Germ. & C. M. Erard |
Poaceae |
Mulch |
4-8 |
Rice |
Oliveira et al. (2014) |
Cassia
tora L. |
Fabaceae |
Vermi-compost |
1.0-12.5 |
Wheat,
rice, groundnut mungbean |
Borah et al. (2009); Roy et al. (2009); Nithya et al. (2010) |
Cassia
uniflora Mill. |
Fabaceae |
Compost,
green manure |
2.6-10.0 |
Transplanted
and direct seeded rice, maize and sunflower |
Prasad et al. (2009); Denesh and Prasad
(2010); Pramod et al. (2010) |
Centaurea
maculosa Lam. |
Asteracea |
Compost,
green manure, mulch |
1-2 |
Rice |
Xuan et al. (2005) |
Chromolaena
odorata (L.) King & H. E. Robins. |
Asteracea |
Compost,
green manure, vermi-compost |
2.6-10.0 |
Fingermillet,
groundnut, maize, sunflower and rice |
Prasad et al. (2009); Denesh et al. (2010); Pramod et al. (2010) |
Eichhornia
crassipes (Mast.) Solems |
Pontederiaceae |
Compost,
green manure, vermin- compost, mulch |
1.0-2.5 |
Rice,
wheat, maize, peanut and mungbean |
Borah et al. (2009); Roy et al. (2009); Nithya et al. (2010) |
Euphorbia
hirta L. |
Euphosbiaceae |
Mulch |
1-2 |
Rice |
Xuan et al. (2005) |
Ipomoea
carnea Jacq. |
Convolvulaceae |
Vermi-compsot |
1.0 |
Wheat,
rice, peanut and mungbean |
Borah et al. (2009); Roy et al. (2009); Nithya et al. (2010) |
Lantana
camara L. |
Verbenaceae |
Vermi-compost,
mulch |
- |
Wheat |
Borah et al. (2009); Nithya et al. (2013) |
Lencaena
glauca Linn. |
Legumiosae |
Mulch |
1-2 |
Rice |
Xuan et al. (2005) |
Mikania
micrantha H.B.K |
Astraceae |
Vermi-compost |
|
Wheat |
Borah et al. (2009); Nithya et al. (2013) |
Morus
alba L. |
Moraceae |
Mulch |
2.0 |
Rice |
Hong et al. (2004); Khanh et al. (2005) |
Parthenium
hysterophorus L. |
Asteraceae |
Compost,
green manure, vermi-compost |
1.0-10.0 |
Maize,
sunflower and rice |
Arthanari et al. (2009); Aundhekar and Gore et al. (2009); Gore et al. (2009); Borah et al. (2009); Roy et al. (2009); Nithya et al. (2010); Denesh et al. (2010); Devi and
Khwairakpam (2021) |
Saccharum
munja L. |
Poaceae |
Vermi-compost |
1:1-1:3
weed-dung combination |
Mung bean |
Saha et
al. (2018) |
Tephrosia
candida DC. |
Fabaecae |
Mulch |
2.0 |
Rice |
Hong et al. (2004); Khanh et al. (2005) |
production practice. Nevertheless, an acute shortage of conventional organic manures
(like animal dung) necessitate exploitation of other
sources of organic manures like weed compost and green manuring (Table
1). Studies have shown that integrated application of compost and chemical
fertilizer performed better than either sole or combined application of FYM and
chemical fertilizer (Sharma et al.
2008; Saha et al. 2018). There is a
possibility to supplement 25–50% nutrients through weed composts
(Rajkhowa 2008; Sharma et al. 2008)
in field crops. Composts prepared from weeds
had a higher nutrient level and a lower C to N ratio than compost prepared from crop straw (Mahanta and Jha 2009).
Moreover, weed composts performed better in improving soil nutrient status,
soil microbial population, nutrients uptake by crop plants, and crop yield
(Rajkhowa 2008; Sharma et al. 2008; Najar 2017).
Basal application of compost prepared from weeds along with
recommended or reduced dose of inorganic NPK has been reported to increase the
soil available NPK with considerable nutrient buildup in the soil at the end of
the crop season compared to the initial nutrient status of the soil (Arthanari et al. 2009; Roy et al. 2009). Studies have also revealed that yield attributing
characters and seed yields of finger millet, peanut,
transplanted/direct-seeded rice, maize and sunflower
were either similar or more by combined application of weed compost and
chemical fertilizer (Table 1; Arthanari et
al. 2009; Aundhekar and Gore 2009; Gore et
al. 2009; Prasad et al. 2009; Roy
et al. 2009). This indicates that the
integrated use of chemical fertilizers and weed compost gave better results in
respect of crop yield than the sole
application of inorganic fertilizers. Use of Pa. hysterophorus, Ch. odorata
and Eu. uniflora
compost at 10 t ha-1 along with 75 and 100% recommended dose of chemical fertilizer recorded 34–42 and
36–39% higher kernel yield of maize compared with 75 and 100% fertilizer alone,
respectively (Denesh et al. 2010).
Moreover, the residual effect of above stated
weed compost also increased the yield of
the succeeding sunflower crop. While studying on aerobic rice, Danesh and
Prasad (2010) found that integrated application of inorganic fertilizer and
weed compost gave similar or more yield than the
integrated use of inorganic fertilizer and FYM. According to Pramod et al. (2010), the application of the
100% recommended dose of inorganic
fertilizer plus Ch. odorata/Pa. hysterophorus/Eu. uniflora/Eleusine
coracana compost each at 2.6 t ha-1
gave maize kernel yield similar to the 100% recommended adose of inorganic fertilizer plus 10 t ha-1
FYM. They attributed these results to the higher
biomass of microorganisms in the soil and
increase in dehydrogenase, and phosphatase activity (Prasad et al. 2009), soil EC, organic carbon,
total phenolics, microbial respiration and urease (Jiao et al. 2021). In
short, harvesting weeds for composting is a potential alternative to chemical
weed control (Ozores-Hempton 1998). This leads us to conclude that bio-management of weeds as a source of compost is an excellent option to
enhance crop yield and improve soil fertility potential.
Weeds as a
source of mulch
Crop residues as mulches have always been around as an
agricultural tool. In recent years, scientists have increased their focus to
conserve resources by adopting conservation agriculture due to the unsustainability of modern agriculture (Farooq et al. 2011). To achieve the benefits of
conservation agriculture, permanent soil cover using crop mulches is an
important attribute. Additionally,
retention of permanent mulch on the soil
surface is more critical to adopt conservation agriculture in temperate
countries where tillage is much reduced (Erenstein 2003). Mulchingat 30%
covering of the soil surface decreased soil erosion by 80%, while the increasing percent soil cover resulted in more
reduction in soil erosion (Allmaras and Dowdy 1985; Erenstein 2003; Doring et al.
2005). Furthermore, mulching has the potential to improve crop growth
and yield (Table 1) by inhibiting growth of weeds, minimizing soil evaporation,
improving capture and use of rain water,
enhancing water infiltration and retention, reducing maximum temperatures in
the soil surface layers, and increasing aggregate stability and soil porosity (Ramakrishna et
al. 2006; Bationo et al. 2007;
Adeniyan et al. 2008). However, in
most of the farming systems, availability of crop residues for mulching is a
major constraint to adopt conservation agriculture.
Recently, attempts are being made to use weeds as mulch
for crops and vegetable production (Table 1). Weeds have been successfully used
as an effective source of organic mulches. Plenty of weed biomass is available
everywhere that can be used as a good mulching material with an economic advantage over polythene mulch. The research reports have indicated the usefulness
of weeds e.g. La. camara and Ei. crassipes biomass
as mulch for increasing maize, rice, wheat, bell paper, okra, potato, tobacco,
tomato, green gram and banana yield and quality (NPK and sugar contents)
compared with crop organic mulches (Table 1). Furthermore, increase in
phosphorus use efficiency, soil organic carbon, available nitrogen content and
soil moisture conservation with weed mulch compared to FYM application has been observed (Barman and Varshney 2009).
Mulches have also been used as an alternative to herbicides
for effective weed control (Dalzell et al. 1987). Mulches were an
important method of weed control prior to the
development of herbicides (Ozores-Hempton 1998). Suppressive effects of
mulches suppress weed growth by causing physical
hindrance as well as by releasing phytotoxic compounds (Ozores-Hempton 1998).
Thus, it is more practical to use mulches in wide-spaced crops, particularly
transplanted crops.
According to Xuan et
al. (2005), use of weeds as organic mulches for weed management can
sometimes control weed growth as effectively as herbicides. For example, Pa. hysterophorus mulching at
the rate of 5 t ha-1 can significantly reduce weed infestation in
soybean and enhance soybean production (Siddiqui et al. 2018).
The mulches of a number of weeds like Ageratum
conyzoides (L.), Avena fatua (L.).,
Bidens pilosa (L.), Centaurea maculosa
(Lam.) and Tephrosia hirta (L.)
could be used to control weeds and for the reduction of herbicides dose (Abbas et al. 2017c). The use of
weeds as mulches also promoted rice growth and yield, and greatly reduced paddy
weed growth at an amount of 2 t ha-1 (obtaining over 80% weed
control) and increased rice yield by 20% (Hong et al. 2004; Khanh et al.
2005). Thakur and Dalal (2013) used three herbicides (pendimethalin, paraquat and
pyrazosulfuron-ethyl), weed
mulches and plastic mulches to control broad- and narrow-leaved weeds in jujube
(Zizyphus mauritiana) and found the highest weed
control efficiency and more buddable
plants of jujube with weed mulch and in the weed-free
control. Likewise, the potential of Brachiaria
ruziziensis (Germ. and Evrard.) as a weed
mulchat 4–8 t ha-1 has been
reported by Oliveira et al. (2014).
The degree of weed control depends on mulch thickness, weed species, and environmental conditions. Weed
control usually improves as the thickness of the organic mulch layer increases
(Ozores-Hempton 1998; Siddiqui et al.
2018). Generally, to suppress weeds most effectively, a 5 to 7 cm thick
layer of mulch is needed. Thus, use of weeds as mulch can be a possible
sustainable ecofriendly alternative to chemical weed control and in the long
run, it will lead to improved soil organic matter contents, soil microflora,
reduced soil weed seed bank and sustainable crop production.
Weeds as a
source of hay and silage
Weeds always invade agricultural land
including crop fields, orchards, road sides
and pastures. Hence, it is essential to know the nutritional potential of
different weed species before making a management decision concerning weed
control. It is often presumed that weeds have low nutritional values and low
palatability for livestock (Lewis and Green-Jr 1995). Therefore, costly,
environmentally toxic and time consuming
methods are mostly practiced to control weeds (Marten and Andersen 1975; Nadeem et al.
2017). Some weed species have thorns (for example Cirsium vulgare Savi., Carduus
nutans L., Lycium ferocissimum Miers., Solanum atropurpureum Schrank.,
So. carolinense and Tribulus terrestris L.), whichmay injure
the mouth and eyes of animals, while some weeds may reduce the quality and
quantity of milk and meat (Lewis and Green-Jr 1995). However,
many weeds are nutritionally rich, and have higher palatability and digestibility
than common forages (Lewis and Green-Jr 1995; Farooq et al. 2021). Therefore, it is important to recognize the
nutritional potential of common weeds to make quality hay and silage. Further
attention in this domain may help to fulfill
the shortage of nutritious food to livestock, especially during forage shortage
periods. It will also lead to a positive
alternative to reduce the hazards produced during chemical weed control.
Nutritive value of weeds
Previously, weeds were assumed to have a low nutritive value and
unpalatable for most of the animal species (Nashiki et al. 1984; Brockman 1985; Marten et al. 1987), thus the importance of weeds as
silage has not received considerable attention. Although a large number of weeds including grasses (Ec. crus-galli L., Bromus tectorum L., Hordeum
jubatum L., Setaria viridis L. and Av. fatua) and broad leaved (Chenopodium album L., Descurainia sophia L.,
Amaranthus retroflexus L.,
Convolvulus arvensis L., Am. viridis and Rumex crispus L.) are consumed by
animals as fodder in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and several other
developing countries (Bakshi et al. 2005; Khan et al. 2013;
Tozer et al. 2015). Weeds may
also help poor landless farmers who do not have enough land to cultivate fodders for their animals.
Weeds
are presently a valuable resource of fodder for many people in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(Pakistan); about 46% of domestic animals depend on weeds as a source of fodder and just 7% used cultivated
fodder (Khan et al. 2013). In
addition, various weed species including A.
hybridus, A. spinosus, Cleome gynandra L., Cucumis metuliferus L., Cu. anguria and Corchorus tridens L., are being consumed as green vegetables for human food, and
thus play an important role in the household
economy (Maroyi 2013).
Recent studies have explored the suitability of weed species as fodder and their
nutritive values for animals (Bakshi et
al. 2005; Payne 2009; Khan et al.
2013; Tozer et
al. 2015; Farooq et al. 2021).
The nutritional composition of weeds is an important factor to determine their
silage quality. For example, some weeds contain toxic chemicals that make them
poisonous for livestock food. Common poisonous weeds found in pastures and
fodder crops include Conium
maculatum L., Cicuta maculate L., Pteridium aquilinum L.,
Triglochin palustris L., Equisetum arvense L., Phytolacca
Americana L., Caltha palustris L. and Helenium automnale L. (Cooper and Johnson 1984; Zhao et al. 2008).
On the other hand, many weed species have the best nutritional compositions for
livestock feed. Farooq et al. (2021) explored that invasive weed A. philoxeroides contain nutrients comparable to common fodder
crops e.g., iron (34.4–64.5 mg kg1),
zinc (15.1–29.8%), manganese (2.3–3.6%), acid detergent fiber (13.0–17.9%),
neutral detergent fiber (23.3–38.9%) and crude protein contents (10.2–14.2%)
were ranging 13.0–17.9, 23.3–38.9 and 10.2–14.2%, respectively. Khan et al. (2013) determined the nutritional
worth of sixteen common weeds for their use as livestock consumption; most of
the weed species were rich in calcium, zinc, copper, iron, sodium and
magnesium. They further concluded that broadleaved weeds contained high mineral
and protein concentrations as compared to grassy weeds, while more fiber was
observed in grassy weeds. Bakshi et al. (2005) reported that
grassy weeds possess good quantity of different nutrient worth estimating
parameters including organic matter (88–93.5%), crude protein (4.7 to 8.3%), neutral detergent fiber (76.9–87.8%) and acid detergent lignin (6.75–9.87%). Most of the
weeds were rich in calcium and magnesium, and had small rumen fill values,
showing their worth for good dry matter intake. Gutierrez
et al. (2008) investigated the
nutritional composition of 14 local weed species and concluded that mineral
concentrations of weeds were at the safe level for livestock use. Additionally,
most of the weeds possess the recommended range of crude fiber and protein for
excellent growth of livestock. Study on influence
of Xanthium
strumarium infestation on
nutritional value of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) pastures
revealed that increasing densities of the weed did not cause any decrease in
nutritive values of total biomass (Rosenbaum
et al. 2011).
The difference between the nutritive worth of fresh forage samples and
silage needs to be determined for weed silage. Analysis of fresh samples may vary with the nutritive contents in hay or
silage (Grabber 2009). Mineral composition calcium-to-phosphorus ratio (Ca: P)
is considered as an important factor to
determine the quality of silage. Most of the weed species have Ca:P ratio under
the safe range for livestock production (Marten et al. 1987). Only few weed species, (including Abutilon theophrasti and Ambrosia trifida L.) have a high Ca: P ratio that could cause a problem only if they used alone for hay
production, however, it is very rarely happened in pastures and other hay
production systems due diverse weed-species composition (Marten and Anderson
1975). These studies suggest that many weed species have
significant nutritive worth for livestock feed. Therefore, these weeds can be
used as a source of silage making. Production of silage from weed species can
contribute well to provide nutrient rich and economically affordable feed to
animals in winter. Since no weed species have been used for silage production,
further research on this aspect is required to investigate the quality,
shelf-life and potential of weed made silage for livestock use.
In vitro dry matter digestibility of
weeds
In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of forage represents
the degree to which plant tissue is observed in the digestive track of animals and is an important parameter to check
their potential as silage. Many weeds have more IVDMD as compared to some cultivated forages (Abaye et al. 2009). Marten and Anderson (1975)
compared the nutritive value and palatability of different annual weeds with
alfalfa and reported that Am. retroflexus
and Ambrosia artemisiifolia had more
IVDMD as compared to alfalfa, whereas Che. album, S. glauca and Ec.
crus-galli showed almost similar
IVDMD to alfalfa. Studies also showed that Am.
artemisiifolia, Ab. theophrasti,
Am. retroflexus,
and Ec. crus-galli had more
palatability and digestibility than cultivated oats (Av. sativa) grown
for forage purposes (Marten and Anderson 1975). Later on, Marten et al.
(1987) comparatively studied the forage nutrition and palatability of ten different weeds at their vegetative and
bud stages with alfalfa and found that most of the annual and perennial weeds
including Taraxacum officinale L.,
Silene alba L., Sonchus arvensis L.,
Helianthus tuberosus L., Berteroa incana L. and Ci.
arvense had similar or higher IVDMD compared with alfalfa.
Palatability and digestibility of some weeds decreased
very quickly as compared to forage crops as the weeds mature (Bosworth et al.
1985). But it is not true for all weeds, for example,
winter annual Lamium amplexicaule L. and Geranium carolinianum L. retained high digestibility even at
maturity. Bosworth et al. (1980)
studied the digestibility of 13 herbaceous weeds and five grass weeds and
compared these with two common forage crops Bermuda
grass (Cynodon
dactylon L.)
and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.). All weed species showed more crude
protein and IVDMD as compared to forage crops. Additionally, Cu. anguria, Am. retroflexus, Senna obtusifolia L. and Ipomoea sp. retained constant IVDMD at different
growth stages (Bosworth et al. 1980).
Previous information on weed hay or silage, and its
nutritive quality and self-life are limited. However, research on the quality of forage hay containing weeds revealed
that the weed concentration influences
the quality of hay, depending upon the type of weeds (Dutt et al. 1982). Weeds of crops may not necessarily be weeds for
forage, silage or hay formation. For example, Lolium rigidum Gaud. is considered as a problematic weed in cereal crops, but, it has a good nutritive value and considered good for silage or hay making (Pinos-Rodríguez et al. 2002).
About 40% area
of the earth is covered with garasslands
and almost 50% of this area is currently used for crop production (Lal et
al. 2018). Grasslands are mostly covered by weeds, which are very important
for carbon sequestration and sustainable hay production (Lal et al. 2018).
Keeping in view these facts, it is crucial to determine the potential of
individual weed species for silage production and their nutritive worth for
livestock. Further studies in this regard will help to understand how grassland
weed species composition influences the hay and silage quality. Additionally, it would provide an alternative
way to manage weeds in field crops by using them for silage making. It will
enhance the farmers’ income and reduce the use of herbicides to provide healthy
foods with less environmental damage.
Weeds as a
source of bio-herbicides
Herbicides with new modes of actions are badly needed
due to fast increasing resistance against all major herbicide groups. In
addition, weed management in organic production systems is a great challenge
due to lack of natural herbicides. Various natural herbicidal compounds have
been identified from different microbes and crop species (Duke et al. 2000; Czarnota et al. 2001).
These natural phytotoxins offer a great opportunity to be directly used as
natural herbicides and to develop novel herbicide mode of actions (Dayan and Duke 2014). In this regard, several
weed species are now getting importance as a potential weed-controlling agent
because of having various phytotoxic compounds. These phytotoxic compounds are
able to inhibit the germination and growth of many other weed species, even
those which gain resistance to herbicides. Different weed species including Che. album, Medicago denticulata L., Melilotus indica
L., Co. arvensis, Vicia hirsute L., Lathyrus aphaca L. and
R. acetosella showed strong
herbicidal potential to control Phalaris
minor Retz. (Om et al. 2002). Acroptilon repens
L.,
a commonly found weed in the western
US, showed herbicidal potential against E. crusgalli, Agropyron smithii Rydb and B.
marginatus Steud. (Stevens 1986).
Aqueous extract of different plant parts of Croton
bonplandianum Baill., exhibited
herbicidal potential against weeds including M. alba L., Vi. sativa and
M. hispida
Gaert. (Sisodia and Siddique 2010). However,
rare studies are available on identification and extraction of herbicidal
compounds from weed species.
D’Abrosca et al.
(2001) identified 24 different phytotoxic compounds in Sambucus nigra L.
belonging to various groups including lignans, cyanogenins,
phenolic glycosides and flavonoids. These
phytotoxic compounds showed strong inhibitory effects on germination and growth
of lettuce (Lactuca
sativa L.), onion (Allium cepa L.)
and radish (Raphanus
sativus L.) (D’Abrosca et al.
2001). Honey
weed (Leonurus sibiricus L.) contain various phytotoxic
compounds that showed an inhibitory effect on rice, wheat and mustard (Mandal
2001). Aqueous extract of Conyza canadensis L. showed a strong inhibitory effect on various crops due
to the presence of different phenolics,
including gallic acid, syringice acid, cathecol and vanillic acid (Ameena and Sansamma
2002). Sasikumar et al. (2002) stated
that the strong inhibitory effect of different plant parts of Pa. hysterophorus
on the germination and growth of various crops was due to the
presence of phenolic acids identified in this weed. Similarly, Che. ambrosioides and Ec. crus-galli also contain various
phytotoxic compounds that were found to inhibit the germination and growth of
different crop species (Hegazy and Farrag 2007; Khanh et al. 2008). Zohaib et al.
(2016) reviewed more than 30 weed species containing phytotoxic compounds that
showed strong inhibition against various crops and weeds, the phytotoxic
potential of these weeds can be explored to manage weeds. The most
commonly found phytotoxic compounds in weeds were alkaloids, fatty acids,
phenolics, terpenoids, indols, lignans, cyanogenins, flavonoids and coumarins
(Zohaib et al. 2016). Furthermore,
allelopathic compounds released from aquatic weeds showed more phytotoxic
response against various terrestrial weeds and crop plants (Abbas et al. 2017a), because plants of a
certain ecosystem might be well adapted to the allelochemicals compared to the
ones of any other ecosystem (Reigosa et
al. 1999; Abbas et al. 2017a). Thus,
phytotoxic compounds released from aquatic weeds can be identified and used as
potential bio-herbicides. In addition, these phytotoxins may also promote the
growth of crop plants at low concentrations (Abbas et al. 2017b). Therefore, optimizing the time of application and
selectivity of various phytotoxins, which can work as bio-herbicides for weeds,
would help to control weeds with enhanced crop growth. In crux, the use of
chemical herbicides is not a sustainable option for crop production due to the fast-increasing
herbicide resistance problem in weeds and environmental hazards of herbicides.
Therefore, the use of weeds to make bio-herbicidescan bean environment-friendly option to control weeds in crops for
sustainable crop production.
Weeds as a source of biofuel
Weeds have great potential to be used as a biofuel
source (Premjet et al. 2012; Ali et al.
2020; Kataki and Kataki 2022) for energy generation by employing
suitable conservation technology. Weed biomass for energy generation can have
multiple socio-economic and environmental benefits along with having local and
global perspectives (Kataki and Kataki 2022).
Weed biomass contains cellulosic or lingo-cellulosic that is important from the
energy conservation (Kataki 2009; Premjet et al. 2012) and can be
feedstocks for anaerobic digestion, briquetting/compaction
and prolysis/carbonization for solid,
liquid and gaseous fuels. Azwar et al. (2022), revealed that aquatic
weeds have high contents of lignocellulose, carbohydrate, protein and lipids,
and thermochemical techniques can be potentially used for biofuel production
from aquatic weeds. Deoxy-liquefaction was applied for thermo-chemical
conversion of some aquatic weeds for energy generation (Azwar et al. 2022). Various grassy weeds (C3 and
C4) were evaluated for their
potential as biofuel production (Azwar et al.
2022), among others two C3 weed species Arundo donax L. and P. arundinacea were more useful as
biofuel species. Furthermore, Ip. carnea, Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., Ei. crassipes,
He. tuberosus, Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. and Phragimites australis Cav.
have shown potential to produce bioenergy (Jiang and Zhang 2003; Suganeshwari
and Ramani 2014; Vaicekonyte et al. 2014). Weeds including Ar. donax, S. spontaneum, Mi. micrantha, La.
camara, E. crasspies and C. squalida L. can be used for the
production of alcoholic biofuels (Borah et
al. 2016; Ogunjobi et al. 2016).
Mixing (10% by weight) of Pa.
hysterophorus with cattle manure as a substrate
produced 60–70% methane (CH4) (Gunaseelan 1987). Furthermore, Pa. hysterophorus biomass alone has
potential to produce 75% CH4 (Gunaseelan and Lakshmanperumalsamy 1990).
Carefulanaerobic digestion of different weeds including Ei. crassipes, Cannabis sativa L.,
Croton sparsiflorus and Pa. hysterophorus showed
significant production of biogas that varied from 90 to 100 L/kg (Thakur and
Singh 2003). Studies have revealed that addition of weed biomass to cow dung
boosted the biogas production, and residues can be used as an effective source
of manure (Kannan et al. 2003;
Gitanjali et al. 2009), because
degradation of phytotoxic allelochemicals that may inhibit microbe and plant
growth has been reported during biogas production process (Gunaseelan 1998).
The introduction of weed
species as a source of biofuel is a major challenge until profits clearly out weigh possible damages because weeds may become invasive and may cause more harm
to crops (Ali et al. 2020). Introducing weed species for the source of biofuel may be safe, but safety
should need to be analyzed by agronomic and environmental aspects. However,
controlling weeds in crops as source of
biofuel production is safe and very economical for farmers. Further research is
required to evaluate the potential of other weeds as a source of biofuel.
Weeds as biosorbent
Weeds including Cyanthilium
cinereum and Paspalum maritimum
were explored as potential weed for the biosorption of methylene blue dye in
effluents (Silva et al. 2019).
Further, another weed Salvinia minima also explored as effective natural
absorbent for removal of dye and heavy metals from wastewater (Sachan et al. 2023). Ageratina adenophora, a weed plant also evaluated as potential and
cheap biosorbent for removal of Cu from aqueous solution (Fan et al.
2022). Two weed species including Lotus corniculatus and Am. viridis have been
identified as natural absorbents for removal of heavy metals (cadmium, chromium,
lead and zinc) from water (Moussa et al.
2022). Further, various aquatic weeds proved as an excellent absorber to absorb
heavy metals and pharmaceutical pollutants from agricultural, domestic and
industrial wastewater (Mustafa and Hayder 2021). Recent studies showed an
encouraging trend regarding biosorbent potential of weeds. Weed-based
biosorbent have great potential to effectively remove heavy metals from wastewater.
Further, with regeneration of biosorbents these can be reused even up to 10
times. Cost analysis confirmed that weed-based biosorbents are
economically inexpensive than old-style adsorbents for example activated carbon
(Syeda et
al. 2022).
Weeds for phytoextraction
Phytoextraction is ecofriendly,
cost-effective and fast emerging technique to remove heavy metals from soil.
Weeds showed promising potential for phytoextraction, effectively removing
contaminates from soil (Pathak and Bhattacharya 2021). Various weed species
including Ip. carnea, Jatropha curcas, Trianthema portulacastrum, Cy. dactylon, Typha
angustifolia, Phyllanthus reticulatus,
E. colonum, Vetiveria nemoralis,
Am. viridis and El. indica showed great
potential to remove different heavy metals including Cd, Cr, Pb and Hg from
soil (Pathak and Bhattacharya 2021). A common weed, Calotropis procera,
exhibited strong potential to grow in contaminated soil and remove arsenic (As)
from As contaminated soil (Singh and Fulzele
2021). In a long term field study, Celosia
argentea successfully
removed cadmium (Cd) form the Cd contaminated soil (Yu et al.
2020).
Removal of heavy metals is done by absorption in undergrounds and above ground
parts. Each weed species has specific physiological and molecular interaction
with heavy metals; thus, uptake potential is influenced by plant genotypes and
its environment. Hence, it is crucial to understand heavy metal tolerance
mechanisms in weed plants and identify weed plants which are more tolerant to
heavy metal stress and perform well under changing climate (especially high
temperature and drought stress).
Other uses
Biochar preparation: Weeds can be used for biochar
production, for instance, biochar produced by pyrolysis of Pa. hysterophorus was effective to improve soil quality and
increase maize yield (Kumar et al.
2013). Furthermore, the addition of this biochar to soil enhanced microbial
biomass carbon, improved catalase and dehydrogenase functions and reduced
hydrolytic enzymes activities (Kumar et
al. 2013). Phytotoxic compounds present in Parthenium (Patel 2011) were degraded during the process of biochar
production at high temperatures. Thus, addition of a large quantity of biochar
showed no phytotoxic effect on soil or crop. Thus the use of weeds, even those
having a strong allelopathic effect, is safe and effective for biochar
preparation.
Dye degradation: Textile dyes are expensive and cause
strong environmental degradation effects, especially when disposed untreated.
They damage different microflora present in soil and water bodies that result
in ecological imbalance. Exploiting the degradation potential of plant enzymes
is an effective and environmentally safe alternative to inorganic toxic textile
dyes. Weeds can be used for dye degradation, for example, phenol oxidase
extraction from young leaves of Pa.
hysterophorus was effective to remove various dyes (Shinde et al. 2012). Higher concentrations of
the extract showed quick results to remove yellow and brown dyes. Additionally,
this extract showed no toxic effect on treated water (Shinde et al. 2012). Thus, extraction of dyes
degradation enzymes from various weeds can help to save cost and environmental
damage.
Paper making and cellulose production: Various weed species are a rich source of lingo cellulosic biomass. Premjet et al.
(2012) determined the concentration of lignin, hemicelluloses and
cellulose of 77 weed species; various weed species contained up to 20% lignin,
32% hemicelluloses and 56% cellulose. These lingo cellulosic concentrations are
more than those in oat, barley, maize and rye straw (Chandel and Singh 2011). Thus, weeds can be used as low a cost
and easily available raw material for production of various qualities of papers
with an acceptable strength and suitable quality for several commercial uses (Ji et al.
2012). Bhodiwal et al. (2024) revealed that La.
camara has good physical streng that different NaOH
concentrations proving that Lantana fiber
can be successfully used for paper making. Chemical characteristics of three
weed species including Merremia peltata (L.) Merr., Am. viridis, and Andropogon saccharoides var. erianthoides Hack.
were analyzed for their potential for paper making, outcomes revealed that
holocellulose and lignin contents found in these weeds were comparable with
holocellulose and lignin contents of wooden trees (Neelagar et al. 2018). Outcomes exhibited the
great potential of these weed species for raw material in pulp and paper
industries.
Lignocellulosic substrates from weeds can be used for
production of water soluble α-cellulose (WSC) (Swaminathan et al.
1990). WSC can be further modified by esterification or etherification to
obtain derivatives of WSC like carboxymethyl, cyanoethyl, hydroxyl methyl,
ethyl, methyl, hydroxyphenyl methyl, and carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose.
These celluloses have many applicable uses as additives in chemicals used in
various industries. Different weed species, for example, Achyranthes aspera L.,
Leucaena leucocephala Lam., Sida
acuta Burm. and Pa. hysterophorus can be considered as a
good candidate for the production of WSC (Bhodiwal
et al. 2024).
Corrosion inhibition: Studies are available on the other direct uses of weeds
like corrosion inhibition (Ji et al. 2012). For example, the above
ground plant parts extract of Cnicus benedictus can be
potentially used as natural steel corrosion inhibitor in HCL media with
excellent efficacy (92.45%) at 1000 mg. kg-1 (Thakur et al.
2022). Recently, Colocasia esculenta
extract has been examined as good corrosion inhibitor with efficacy of more
than 93%, increasing extract concentration from 100 to 500 mg/L in acid solution
caused increase in efficacy (Singh et al. 2023).
Conclusion
Due to issues regarding the use of herbicides including fast increasing herbicides resistance,
herbicide hormesis in weeds, environmental and health hazards, it is essential
to find efficient alternatives to chemical weed control. The bio-management of weeds through their
utilization as value added products is a good
option for sustainable weed management and to enhance the farmers’ income.
Weeds can be used to make various value-added products including medicines,
compost, mulches, hay and silage, bioherbicides, and biofuel that might enhance
the economic return of farmers. The great
potential of weeds to make value-added
products can be utilized by farmers, scientists,
and industrialists to build soil with the organic
source, control weeds by natural mulches and herbicides, safe medicines to ensurehuman and animal health, natural feed for
livestock and environmentally safe source of fuel. Various weed species showed
great potential for dye degradation, paper
making and cellulose production, corrosion inhibition, biosorbent and phytoextraction. In addition,
this will save drainage of money for purchasing inorganic fertilizers and
herbicides. Bio-management of weeds as value added products may provide a
miracle in weed control technology. However, it is advised that weeds should be
removed from the cropped and non-cropped areas timely for use as value added
products to reduce the weed seed dispersal and harmful effects on crop plants.
It will reduce weed intensity at agricultural farms and soil productivity and
profit of the farmers will be enhanced on a sustainable
basis. Continuous efforts at agricultural universities and research institutes are
needed in different agroecological zones for developing compost making
technologies for weeds with higher biomass production particularly in the
developing countries to lessen the use of off-farm fertilizer resources.
Farmers’ group meeting, training, and
demonstration trials can be organized to spread this technology and build-up
farmers’ confidence.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge support from
University of Sargodha.
Author
Contributions
TA, conceptualization, writing—original draft
preparation, writing—review and editing; MAN, writing—review and editing,
supervision, resources; NRB, conceptualization, writing—review and editing; AM,
writing—review and editing; MK, writing—review and editing; MKM, writing—review
and editing; MTAK, data curation; NF, writing—review and editing, project
administration, data curation. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of
Interest
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data
Availability
Data presented in this study will be available on a fair
request to the corresponding author.
Ethics
Approval
Not applicable to this paper.
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